The Preschool SLP: KellyVessSLP

You opened your caseload. Another Spanish-speaking kiddo. You don't speak Spanish. There's no translator. No bilingual SLP down the hall. Now what? You don't freeze. You don't refer out. You don't waste a single therapy minute. You use the 5-step Good Enough Practice plan, built on the complexity approach research, to drive real, generalizable gains in both languages, even when you're only treating in one. In this follow-up to Episode 215 (assessment), we roll up our sleeves and walk through exactly what to do Monday morning. 🔥 What You'll Walk Away With ✅ Why "good enough practice" beats "no practice," and how to defend your why on every clinical decision ✅ The exact target selection sequence that gets you the most generalization per minute of therapy ✅ Why FR will get you FL "for free," and why SKR might out-perform both ✅ How to coach caregivers in 5 minutes a day (and why frequency beats duration at the preschool level) ✅ The single word probe strategy that tells you whether gains are generalizing, not just memorized ✅ The one thing more important than language matching: multimodal, dynamic cueing at the 80% challenge point 🎯 The 5-Step "Good Enough" Framework Step 1. Find an error that occurs in BOTH languages. Use IPA to compare error sounds across the child's L1 and English. Pick a sound that's broken in both phonological systems so any gain transfers across languages. The research on shared targets supports this. When shared sounds are treated, cross-linguistic generalization happens, even when treatment is delivered in only one language (Barlow et al., 2024; Gildersleeve-Neumann & Goldstein, 2015). Step 2. Pick a COMPLEX target, not a singleton. Skip /f/ alone. Skip /r/ alone. Go for the cluster. Complex targets create system-wide change because clusters imply singletons, meaning treating the harder thing makes the easier things come along for the ride (Gierut, 2007; Storkel, 2018). Higher aim, higher gains. Cirque du Soleil in the mouth. Step 3. Treat in the language YOU are fluent in (English). You cannot deliver therapy with fidelity in a language you don't speak. A ChatGPT word list doesn't fix your inability to model a Spanish trill. Stick with English, and select complex targets that share sounds with the child's L1 so the gains cross over. Pilot data on Spanish/English bilinguals show medium effect sizes for system-wide generalization in both the treated and untreated language when complex cluster targets are used (Combiths et al., 2023). Step 4. Train caregivers with daily home practice in the child's L1. Build a short core vocabulary list, sentence, or paragraph that contains the target and hand it to the family in their language. Embed it into an existing routine like toothbrushing, bedtime, or snack. Frequency over duration: 5 minutes every day beats 2 hours once a week at the preschool level. Step 5. Probe progress in BOTH languages every quarter. Skip the practice-effect probes for the same 5 words. Re-administer a single-word, phonetically balanced picture test in each language every 2 months and track the number of errors, not the standard scores. That's how you know gains are generalizing rather than rehearsed. 👉 Ready to Stop Hunting for Materials and Start Driving Real Gains? Here's the secret the 5-step plan can't give you on its own: the materials. Inside the SIS Membership, you get the done-for-you complex cluster paragraphs, phonetically loaded sentences. These are the exact materials I hand to caregivers to embed into toothbrushing, bedtime, and snack routines. No more scrambling. No more wondering if your target is complex enough. Join SIS and work smarter, not harder: https://kellyvess.com/sis

If you’re feeling like your therapy sessions are “working” but chugging along at a slow pace, this episode is going to hit a nerve in the best way. Because here’s the truth that most of us weren’t trained to see clearly: When a child has anxiety or ADHD, you are not just treating speech and language. You are working against a nervous system that is dysregulated, overloaded, and constantly scanning for what feels safe, predictable, and doable. And if your therapy doesn’t account for that, it won’t stick. Not because the child can’t learn, but because the system isn’t ready to hold onto what you’re teaching. In this episode, we break down what is actually happening underneath the surface with anxiety and ADHD, and why traditional, sit-and-work therapy models often fall apart with these learners. We walk through what to look for, what to shift immediately, and how to build sessions that regulate first so language, speech, and AAC can actually follow. We’re talking about real, Monday-morning changes that increase engagement, reduce shutdown behaviors, and create the kind of momentum that leads to true generalization. If you’ve ever thought, “They can do it with me, but nowhere else,” this episode is for you. Because that gap is not a mystery. It’s a systems problem, and you can fix it. And when you do, everything changes. If you are ready for therapy that actually works for children with anxiety and ADHD, where movement, regulation, literacy, and communication are all working together instead of competing, then it’s time to step into a model that was built for exactly that. Inside the SIS Membership, you get ready-to-use, literacy-based, movement-rich therapy activities designed to support regulation, attention, and engagement first, so that speech, language, and AAC gains can finally stick and generalize across settings. No more piecing things together. No more guessing what will work. Just open, implement, and watch the shift. Join the SIS Membership here: https://www.kellyvess.com/sis Roll up your sleeves and meet me at the intervention drawing board.💚KellyVessSLP

If you work with children who have autism, minimal joint attention, and limited expressive language, this episode challenges what you’ve been taught and replaces it with something far more useful. This is not a “wait and see” conversation. This is a rethink-everything conversation. Drawing from a powerful systematic review and the lens of dynamic systems theory, this episode breaks down why language development in autism does not follow a predictable path and why that actually changes how we should intervene starting today. You will walk away with a clearer understanding of how language can emerge in unexpected ways, why inconsistency is often a sign of growth, and how to respond in the moment so you do not accidentally shut down emerging communication. This is about seeing the child differently and adjusting your intervention accordingly. What You’ll Learn... Why joint attention is not a prerequisite for language The reality that some children develop language without following typical developmental sequences? How children may learn language visually, through patterns, reading, or AAC rather than through listening? Why “inconsistency” in communication is often a sign that a new skill is emerging How dynamic systems theory explains variability in language development? Because the child in front of you is not broken. They are showing you their pathway. You just have to be willing to take it? 3 Clinical Takeaways You Can Use Immediately: There is no single pathway to language Children may not follow a linear progression from babbling to words to sentences. Some may start with scripts, reading, or full phrases. Your job is to identify the pathway and build from it. Variability is not a problem When a child says a word once and then “loses it,” that is not regression. That is emergence. Do not punish inconsistency. Support it. Be dynamic in your response You cannot use a fixed script with a variable system. Adjust moment by moment. Increase support, then fade it. Follow attention, motivation, and engagement in real time. Referenced in This Episode Kissine, M., Saint-Denis, A., & Mottron, L. (2023). Language acquisition can be truly atypical in autism: Beyond joint attention. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 153, 105384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105384 Spencer, J. P., Perone, S., & Buss, A. T. (2011). Twenty years and going strong: A dynamic systems revolution in motor and cognitive development. Child Development Perspectives, 5(4), 260–266. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2011.00194.x Your Next Step If this episode is hitting something for you, if you’re realizing that your therapy needs to shift from linear to dynamic, then you need tools that actually match that approach. Because insight without application does not change outcomes. Inside the SIS Membership, you get weekly, ready-to-use, literacy-based movement activities that are built for exactly this kind of work. You are not guessing what to do next You are not piecing together random strategies You are walking into your sessions with a clear, research-informed plan that supports real language growth This is where theory meets practice in a way that actually works. 👉 Join today: https://www.kellyvess.com/sis Roll up your sleeves and meet me at the intervention drawing board.

If you work with children with autism, developmental delays, or complex communication needs, this episode is a must-listen. Today, we’re talking about cerebral visual impairment, or CVI, and why it may be one of the most overlooked reasons children struggle with communication, attention, social interaction, AAC use, and motor-based learning. This episode is not about whether a child can see an item on an eye chart. It is about how the brain processes visual information and how that affects language, participation, and learning. In this episode, I share 10 practical strategies from the literature that speech-language pathologists and speech-language pathology assistants can use right now to better support children with visual processing challenges. We discuss why reducing clutter matters, how to make materials more visually accessible, why movement activates learning, and how active task-based therapy can improve visual-motor integration. You’ll learn: -Why is cortical visual impairment increasingly referred to as cerebral visual impairment -How CVI affects communication and social development -What visual complexity does to learning -Why movement is critical for visual engagement -How to adjust therapy and AAC supports for better outcomes Join the SIS Membership for ready-to-use literacy-based, movement-based activities that help you put these ideas into practice right away: https://www.kellyvess.com/sis Featured article: Wilkinson, K. M., Elko, L. R., Elko, E., McCarty, T. V., Sowers, D. J., Blackstone, S., & Roman-Lantzy, C. (2023). An evidence-based approach to augmentative and alternative communication design for individuals with cortical visual impairment. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 32, 1939–1960. https://doi.org/10.1044/2023_AJSLP-22-00397 Thank you for being with me at today’s intervention drawing board for a better tomorrow,💚Kelly

Feeling overwhelmed by a caseload that includes autism, childhood apraxia of speech, developmental language disorder, articulation, fluency, and AAC users… all back-to-back? You are not alone. Many speech-language pathologists walk into therapy sessions with a stack of different activities for every child. One game for articulation. Another for language. Another for fluency. Another for AAC. Before long, therapy starts to feel like running a fast-food counter. But what if you could run one powerful therapy routine that works for every child on your caseload? In this episode of The Preschool SLP Podcast, Kelly Vess shares the five-step therapy routine she uses every single day to deliver educationally rich, engaging sessions that treat the whole child while producing powerful gains across: • Speech sound production • Language development • Literacy skills • AAC use • Executive function • Motor planning and coordination Instead of pulling ten different activities from behind the therapy table, this routine uses one structured activity and simply changes the treatment target to match each child’s goals. Built on principles from Universal Design for Learning, motor learning, and executive function research, this approach allows clinicians to work smarter, not harder. You will learn: • The five predictable therapy steps Kelly uses with every child • How to use one activity to treat speech, language, AAC, literacy, and fluency • Why predictable routines help children feel safe, regulated, and ready to learn • How task-oriented movement improves executive function and engagement • Why treating the whole child instead of just the mouth produces stronger outcomes When therapy is predictable, engaging, and multimodal, both the clinician and the child can be fully present. And that is when the magic happens. Join the SIS Membership If you love practical therapy frameworks like this, the SIS Membership was built for you. Each week inside SIS you receive: • Ready-to-use movement-based therapy activities • Powerful complex speech and language treatment targets • A growing treatment target library you can use with any caseload • A full literacy, language, and movement Google Slides deck for therapy, classrooms, or teletherapy Everything is designed to help busy SLPs deliver high-impact therapy without spending hours planning. Many members prep their entire week of therapy in less than one hour. Join today and receive the entire Treatment Target Library immediately: https://www.kellyvess.com/sis with you in this,💚 Kelly

If you work with children who drool, this episode is for you. I’m pulling back the curtain on an approach I’ve used for over 15 years that has consistently reduced—and often eliminated—drooling in preschoolers. Not in theory. Not in a lab. In real therapy rooms, with real kids, on real caseloads. Here’s the uncomfortable truth: There is very little direct research on speech intervention and drooling. And instead of grappling with that complexity, our field often defaults to dogmatic thinking—blindly applying principles from other populations and calling it “evidence-based.” In this episode, I challenge that thinking. You’ll hear why: Motor learning principles do not transfer cleanly to preschoolers Bottom-up oral motor logic fails when the task is speech Single sounds don’t recruit the same neuromuscular systems as 3-element consonant clusters Then I walk you through four precise reasons why targeting three-element clusters (like /spr/, /skr/, /skw/) uniquely impacts drooling: Jaw stability driven by sustained /s/ with a closed mandibular posture Differentiation of tongue and lips from the jaw, mirroring swallowing mechanics Enhanced proprioceptive feedback through Dynamic Temporal Tactile Cueing Endurance and motor control built through slow, continuous, high-load speech tasks I also share a practical “back-porch” way to test this yourself—no fancy equipment, no new evals, just systematic observation and honest comparison. This isn’t about abandoning evidence-based practice. It’s about doing it better—with nuance, skepticism, and attention to detail. Because real progress doesn’t come from swinging between extremes. It comes from asking better questions and working at the right level of complexity. What You’ll Learn Why drooling is a neuromuscular control issue—not a hygiene issue How 3-element clusters recruit swallowing-relevant motor systems Why preschoolers need more, not less, feedback How to get speech gains and drool reduction at the same time Where the limits of this approach actually are (and why that matters) Call to Action If you want to apply this Monday morning, don’t guess. When you join the SIS Membership, you’ll immediately receive: Ready-to-use 3-element cluster treatment targets Weekly task-oriented movement activities that support posture, endurance, and executive function Research-to-practice tools designed for real caseloads—not perfect conditions You don’t need more time. You need higher-yield targets. 👉 Join here: https://www.kellyvess.com/sis Because when you work at the right level of complexity, the easier skills take care of themselves.

What if the problem with treating the R sound isn’t the child—but the way we train it? In today’s episode, we step outside the field of speech-language pathology and borrow powerful, evidence-based principles from exercise science and kinesiology to rethink how we treat speech sound disorders. Why? Because exercise science has done what our field largely hasn’t: isolated what actually works using controlled trials, precision, and specificity. Speech is a complex neuromuscular skill. Treating it like flashcards and passive listening don’t make sense—and they don’t produce durable change. In this episode, you’ll learn how five core principles from exercise science directly apply to improving the R sound efficiently: • Why “practice makes permanent” and how the 80% challenge point prevents habituating errors • How progressive overload explains why complex clusters outperform isolated sounds • Why auditory bombardment is passive and inefficient when therapy time is limited • How compound training (paragraphs, clusters, movement, literacy) creates system-wide linguistic change • Why specificity matters—and why speech therapy must look like real speech to generalize This episode challenges the status quo in therapy and makes the case for treating speech as the neuromuscular endurance task it actually is. If you’re tired of plateaus, endless cueing, and R programs that don’t generalize, this conversation will change how you think about treatment starting Monday morning. 👉 Ready to treat the R sound more efficiently—without guessing? Inside the SIS Membership, you’ll find high-impact treatment targets, complex R clusters, and ready-to-use paragraphs designed to apply these principles immediately—so you can stop planning and start seeing change. Get access to efficient, evidence-informed R targets at https://www.kellyvess.com/sis Train smarter. Challenge appropriately. Create real change.

If you work with children who are minimally speaking with autism or you love a child who is minimally speaking, today’s episode matters. Over the past year, I’ve been doing something deeply intentional. I’ve been having long, honest conversations with speech pathologists and special education teachers who are truly effective with high-tech AAC. These weren’t quick chats. Each interview ran over an hour. I asked open-ended questions. I pushed for specifics. I wanted to know what is actually working for robust AAC systems with thousands of words. What I found surprised me. There was no magic training. No perfect certification. No secret setting hidden inside the device. What these highly effective professionals shared was something much more human. They believed in themselves enough to try. To fail. To troubleshoot. To look clumsy. To learn alongside the child. In this episode, I talk about why vulnerability is the real needle mover in AAC implementation. I share why modeling uncertainty, curiosity, and joy matters more than appearing fluent. Showing a child how you search for a word, celebrate finding it, or flexibly choose an alternative builds far more communication power than perfection ever could. We discuss treating AAC as play, not performance. About using devices the way we use books with young children as interactive tools meant to spark connection, not test correctness. I also connect what I’m seeing in my dissertation research to real-life practice. Across hours of transcripts and coding, the same theme kept surfacing. Fluency doesn’t come from training. It comes from hands-on experience. Repetition. Messy, imperfect action. This episode will challenge you to rethink comfort zones, to stop waiting until you feel ready, and to remember that communication growth begins when adults are willing to learn out loud. If AAC has ever felt overwhelming, intimidating, or like something you were supposed to already have mastered, this conversation is for you. And if you want ready-to-use, engaging, and effective activities that make AAC implementation doable in real sessions, join the SIS Membership. Weekly resources arrive in your inbox so you can spend less time prepping and more time modeling, exploring, and connecting with your kids. You can learn more and join at https://www.kellyvess.com/sis Thank you for being part of this work. Roll up your sleeves. Be vulnerable. And keep changing lives one child at a time.

If you work with parents of children with special needs, this episode is non-negotiable. Instead of diving into research, we’re heading straight into a film that delivers the kind of uncomfortable clarity our field rarely gets. Today, we break down If I Had Legs, I’d Kick You—Mary Bronstein’s raw, emotionally accurate look into the lived experience of parenting a neurodivergent child—and why every SLP, special educator, and early-intervention professional needs to watch it. This movie exposes a blind spot in our practice: how we show up for families. And more importantly, how often we get it wrong. In this episode, you’ll learn: • Why judging parents instantly destroys trust • How our “professional persona” blocks genuine connection • The simple shift that makes parents feel heard instead of dismissed • When your “support” becomes a burden—and how to stop doing it • Why burnout in families is invisible until it explodes • How to rebuild capacity for parents and for yourself This is not a feel-good conversation. It’s a necessary recalibration for anyone who works with families navigating neurodivergence, chronic medical needs, and overwhelming daily demands. If you want to do better for the families you serve, start here. Feeling your own burnout creeping in? Stop white-knuckling it. The SIS Membership provides weekly, ready-to-use, universally designed literacy-movement activities that dramatically reduce your planning time while increasing engagement for every child on your caseload. Protect your capacity. Strengthen your practice. Join today at https://www.kellyvess.com/sis

Children who speak freely at home but shut down in public aren’t being stubborn. Their capacity is getting crushed by the demands of new people, new settings, and unpredictable routines. In this episode, we break down how to build capacity using the PRIDE approach—adapted specifically for reluctant speakers and children with selective mutism. You’ll hear how to shift out of “thermostat mode” and into “mime mode,” using 10 minutes a day of pure responsiveness to lower pressure, increase connection, and support communication in high-stress seasons like the holidays. We walk through exactly how to use each part of PRIDE—objective encouragement, reflection, imitation, description, and enjoyment—without adding demands, without pushing speech, and without triggering shutdown. This is the blueprint for helping sensitive, cautious, or selectively mute children communicate more confidently when the world gets loud. In this episode, you’ll learn: • How the Demands–Capacity Model explains shutdowns in public or group settings • Why holiday routines, unfamiliar people, and novel activities increase mutism • How to adapt each PRIDE element for reluctant speakers (no expansions, no recasts) • What 10 minutes of daily “mime time” does to build capacity fast • The specific social and communication behaviors that improve when capacity increases • How SLPs can coach families through this process during high-stress seasons If you work with children who freeze, whisper, avoid, or stop speaking outside the home, this episode gives you a concrete plan you can use immediately. Want ready-to-use activities that make your therapy educationally rich without adding demands? Join the SIS Membership and get weekly materials designed to support speech, language, and social-emotional foundations—especially for sensitive and reluctant communicators. 👉 https://www.kellyvess.com/sis

If you treat speech sound disorders (SSD) and you’re not seeing the gains you expect, this episode is your playbook. We cut through the noise and name the 10 research-informed predictors of slower progress—attention/self-monitoring limits, sensitive temperament, co-occurring language/working-memory load, hearing impairment (fricatives/affricates), motor speech factors, structural constraints (e.g., open bite), low stimulability, later start to intervention, low therapy intensity/irregular attendance, and environmental barriers. Then we pivot hard into the three levers that consistently move outcomes: choosing complex, maximally distinct targets (e.g., SW-blends), delivering dynamic temporal tactile cueing (DTTC-style), and holding the ~80% challenge point to avoid reinforcing error patterns. Concrete therapy examples, parent carryover, and generalization strategies included. What you’ll learn: 📈How attention and self-monitoring mask progress until generalization “pops” 📈Why a sensitive temperament demands predictability and a responsive start 📈How co-occurring language and limited verbal working memory can look like CAS—but aren’t 📈What hearing loss really means for fricatives/affricates and consonant deletion patterns 📈Practical expectations for motor speech and structural constraints (e.g., open bite) 📈How stimulability with maximal cueing informs prognosis 📈Why start age and habit strength matter for entrenched /r/ and /s/ errors 📈Why frequency > duration for home practice, and how to embed one daily rep 📈The “no-data-during-DTTC” mindset: probe quickly, cue deeply, fade fast The 3 levers (non-negotiables): 📈Target selection: Complex, maximally distinct clusters (SW > ST/SP/SK) to drive system-wide change. 📈Delivery: DTTC-style, moment-to-moment cueing (choral → fade), with brief probes to verify learning. 📈Challenge point: Keep accuracy near ~80%—high enough to learn, low enough to adapt. If you’re reinforcing errors, pivot. 00:00 Why progress “flatlines” then explodes 03:10 Predictor #1: Attention/self-monitoring 06:20 #2: Sensitive temperament & predictable routines 10:00 #3: Language/working memory vs. “looks like CAS” 14:15 #4: Hearing impairment (HF cues, fricatives/affricates) 17:10 #5: Motor speech considerations 20:05 #6: Structural constraints (open bite, dental) 22:40 #7: Stimulability with maximal cueing 25:00 #8: Older start age, entrenched habits 27:10 #9: Intensity/attendance 28:45 #10: Environmental barriers 30:45 The 3 levers: complex targets, DTTC, 80% challenge point 38:00 One-rep-a-day home carryover that actually sticks Call to action: Stop reinventing materials. Make your work easy with effective, educationally-rich SSD tools at your fingertips—complex target sentence strips, paragraphs, and movement-literacy activities ready so you can focus on cueing, not prep. 👉 Join the SIS Membership: https://www.kellyvess.com/sis

Discover how a 2025 Nature autism study transforms early intervention in speech language pathology. Learn how family history, genetics, and executive function shape assessment, therapy planning, and lifelong communication outcomes. If you work with children with autism, this episode will change how you think about early intervention forever. A major 2025 study published in Nature titled Polygenic and developmental profiles of autism differ by age of diagnosis has revealed that early onset autism and later developing autism are not the same. This is one of the largest autism studies ever conducted, examining more than 47,000 individuals around the world. The results reshape how we understand autism heritability, family psychiatric history, and executive function development. In this episode, you will learn: ✅ Why early autism diagnosed before age three is genetically distinct from later developing autism that emerges in middle childhood or adolescence ✅ How family psychiatric history, including ADHD, anxiety, depression, bipolar disorder, and substance use predicts later developing autism ✅ Why the DSM 5 removal of the age three cutoff was not only progressive but empirically supported ✅ How this research should change your parent input forms and follow up recommendations ✅ Why executive function including attention, cognitive flexibility, and self regulation is the bridge between prevention and intervention This study confirms that autism can emerge at any point in development when social and academic demands exceed a child’s executive function capacity. That finding changes everything about how we evaluate, how we plan early intervention, and how we empower families. If you are ready to move beyond reactive labels toward proactive, capacity-building intervention, this episode will show you how to do exactly that. 💡 Join the SIS Membership at https://www.kellyvess.com/sis to access weekly movement-based literacy and language activities that build executive function, the foundation for lifelong communication, learning, and independence. Source: Zhang, Y., et al. (2025). Polygenic and developmental profiles of autism differ by age of diagnosis. Nature, 631(8046), 455–468. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41034588/ Note: The diagnosis of Autism is an interdisciplinary process. In the U.S. public school system, a psychologist, social worker, and SLP are minimally required. In private settings, most insurers require a psychologist, MD, or psychiatrist with an allied health professional, such as an SLP.   

If you work with children with speech sound disorders, this episode is a must-listen. We’re diving into cutting-edge research on final consonant clusters—a treatment target that has been largely overlooked but may unlock powerful generalization gains. For decades, evidence has shown that choosing complex targets leads to greater overall progress. Now, new research suggests that working on final 3-element clusters may be just as effective—and possibly more efficient—than the traditional initial cluster approach. In this episode, I’ll break down: ✅ Why marked forms (like /skr/) accelerate progress more than unmarked forms ✅ What makes final clusters uniquely complex (morphological load, rarity, later acquisition) ✅ Key takeaways from a 2025 study on final clusters in intervention (8 children, 6 weeks, medium effect sizes) ✅ Practical strategies you can implement tomorrow on your back porch ✅ Why efficiency matters: getting gains in speech and language when time is limited. I’ll also share how to structure practice (limited exemplars, high repetitions, removing models for self-driven motor planning) so you can maximize impact. Don’t wait 17 years for research to trickle into practice—try this approach now. 🎁FREE Resource: Download your Final Cluster Homework Flip Book here: 👉 http://www.kellyvess.com/finalcluster ✨ Want weekly ready-to-go resources? Join the SIS Membership today and get instant access to: Theme-based movement + literacy activities Weekly treatment targets (including complex clusters + paragraphs) Parent + teletherapy Google Slides decks A full treatment target library 👉 https://www.kellyvess.com/sis Source: Potapova, I., John, A., Pruitt-Lord, S., & Barlow, J. (2025). Extending complexity to word-final position via telepractice: Intervention effects for English-speaking children with speech sound disorder. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 56(1), 42–57. https://doi.org/10.1044/2024_lshss-24-00020